Enslaved Africans did not have access to choice cuts of meat and had to find ways to tenderize and prepare strange foods in a way that would provide nourishment and was reminiscent of food from their home country.

One such example of this would be the American Sweet Potato. It is mistakenly called a Yam because its shape resembles a vegetable grown in Africa called a Yam. However the two vegetables are not related in any way. The enslaved Africans were able to grow the root tuber cheaply and prepare it with traditional spices from their home country.

Today Soul Food still represents more than just nourishment. Soul food is a way to celebrate diversity. By taking time to learn of the history of how to prepare a food and enjoy a type of cuisine that is new to ones palate, a person is able to appreciate the struggles involved in the oral history of recipes.

There are numerous soul food websites out there to try and duplicate what has existed for decades in southern kitchens. What was once scrap foods are now served up in high priced restaurants.

Some of my favorite sites include. http://www.bigmamasrecipes.com/soulfood/africanamericanindex

http://www.chitterlings.com/

My favorite Soul Food: From http://whatscookingamerica.net/Vegetables/CollardGreens.htm

Collard Greens Recipe

This is a family recipe from my friend, Andra Cook of Raleigh, North Carolina.  Andra says, “It is difficult to measure weight and size for each serving. My mother-in-law, Belle Cook, says she buys a grocery bag full and can serve four with that. Collard greens are available eight months out of the year in the South. I don’t include June through September because the greens are much better after they  have a ‘good hard frost.’ That’s not to say you can’t get them in the other months (June-September), but the taste is much better after the frost.”

Collard greens (whole collard heads or leaves)
2 ham hocks
Water
Salt to taste
Toppings (suggestions follow)

Wash greens thoroughly, approximately 3 or 4 times to ensure they are clean and free of insects. Remove large stems.

Place ham hocks in an extra-large pot with enough water to completely cover them. Add salt and cook ham hocks at least 30 minutes before adding collards greens. Add collards, big leaves first (let them start boiling), then add remainder of greens. Cook 45 minutes to 1 hour, stirring once about midway to ensure thorough cooking. Test for tenderness of stems at 45 minutes by piercing with a sharp knife. Cook additional time if necessary.

Remove from heat and drain in a colander, reserving the juice (pot likker). Chop collards with a collard chopper or a knife, leaving no large leaves or pieces. Add some of the pot likker if the greens are too dry.Salt to taste. Serve hot or at room temperature with your choice of toppings.

I have included a sample of my papers so that students can see that hitory teachers are historians first and teachers second. I want my studentst to see that I have done research and have enjoyed collecting information and reporting on that information. I hope that students enjoy reading my research and can use it as an example on how to properly site a paper in both Chicago style and APA style.

This page is always a work in progress. Please feel free to leave me messages about historical topics that you would like to explore or to comment about any that you feel would interest me.

             Segregated schools, signs over water fountains, limited excess to voter registration all reek of inequality and injustice. The division between races was evident publicly and it was not considered politically incorrect to describe a person of color as being a second class citizen. Through the diligence of citizens who fought for civil rights these blatant signs of racial inequality were torn down. The federal government was asked to take a stand against discrimination and in court case after court case they did so. The concept of separate but equal was no longer going to be valid in the minds of the court. However the minds of the people were much harder to change. The perception of many continued to be that African Americans were still inferior and no matter how many laws were passed, the Land of Dixie would remain business as usual.

            The key to the south being able to keep their views the same even though the law said that this viewpoint was wrong and would no longer be tolerated was to find ways to get around the law. One such way was to simply stall for time.  Brown vs. Board of Education said that schools must be integrated but it did not say how or when. Even when pressured for a time the best the courts could say was “all deliberate speed”.  In the south, the deliberate speed was deliberately slow. School boards came up with “freedom of choice plans” that allowed for a certain number of blacks to attend an all white school just to have a token number to create a façade of integration.  According to David R. Goldfield in 1968, roughly 90 percent of school-aged black children in Atlanta were still in segregated schools (Epson, 401). Atlanta journalist Ralph McGill shared the view of many Atlanta residents and those in the federal courts who were tired of the slow pace when he stated,” I am weary of the old hanging on of the dual school systems and the excuses and evasion.” (Epson, 401)

            The federal courts would give guidelines but they were always cautious as to stay within their bounds. They did not want to overstep their authority and be viewed as big government stepping in and controlling a states right issue. It was through this cautiousness that school boards were able to get around the segregation issue.  If the courts said all public schools must be integrated then the school system created private schools. If the courts said that children could be bussed from one district to another to enforce segregation, the school boards would redraw the district lines. As a last ditch effort to avoid having their child go to an integrated school, the white parent would simply move. The white parents would site the reason of “quality education” but according to public school superintendent Richard Boyd, the doubling of private schools from 40 to 85 in Memphis was “100% racial” (Epson, 403). The task of desegregating schools became harder to accomplish. The white citizens ignored the problem, created a token fix, started a private school or simply moved away.  The white parents hid behind the notion that they were simply wanted the best education possible for their child in their own neighborhood.

            Ultimately, African American students paid the price for white parents being deliberately obtuse that this was not an issue about school boundaries but racial boundaries. The segregated black schools faced economic problems such as students not able to enter a museum on a field trip for lack of the $.50 entry fee.

.           Curriculum, according to David R. Goldfield, was inadequate and standardized tests could not be mastered for lack of recognition of everyday items such as a marshmallow or cherry simply because the student had never seen such an item. Books that were provided were not able to be understood because the students were never taught the concept of page numbers (Escott, 404).

            Religion had always been a part of Southern tradition for both whites and blacks alike. It either serves to uplift and offer hope or to offer a hiding ground for contempt that is veiled in righteousness.  Christianity can be the great equalizer offering salvation for everyone or a means of excluding those who have not found the path to righteousness, depending on how the criteria for righteous living are laid out. It is through this contradiction in Christianity being welcoming or exclusionary that politics was able to form with religion.

            The southern attitudes of wanting to avoid federal control and conservative Christian values appealed greatly to Republican Party leaders seeking the votes of southerners. The party leaders knew that these Christian values were not just taught on Sundays but were an intrinsic part of Southern live. As evidenced by dry counties as a result of the temperance movement and blue laws on Sundays, Christian values spread out into the community beyond the churchyard.

 One could argue that religion and politics have not belonged together since the separation of church and state but in the south this line is not as clearly drawn. Republicans recognized this grey area and were able to appeal to the conservative values of what could be collectively called the Religious Right. They are addressed as one unit even though the actual doctrine of the churches varies as much as the degree of faithfulness any one individual within the church may worship. This is not faulty logic on the part of Republicans to appeal to the group as one unit. The share enough of the same values to cast the same vote on Election Day.

The question is not that they share the same Christian values but what part of these values are self serving? Are the republican candidates working with Christian right for a righteous cause or are they working for a more deviant purpose that is more self-righteous than righteous?

An example of this manipulation of values to solicit votes would be the Reagan campaign of 1980. According the article with an Unidentified Republican Official, “All you have to do to keep the South is for Reagan to run in place on issues he’s campaigned on since 1964…and that’s fiscal conservatisms, balancing the budget, cut taxes “(Epson, 389) The value system shared by southern voters supported a strong work ethic where one was rewarded by their government with lower taxes. The value system of the south did not support government involvement in social issues.  According to the religious right this desire for a cutting of programs for social welfare was for the better good of the people. The poor could be exalted by pulling themselves up by their bootstraps and working hard instead of receiving government assistance.

Tax cuts were for the hard working people whereas those who relied on food stamps, government housing and other social programs were immoral. If they were living according to the values of the Christian right they would not want a hand out but would want to be glorified by working harder.

What was lost in this rhetoric for social change is that the people who were on the government assistance were predominately poor black working families. The jobs they were qualified to work due to improper education were not enough to provide even the basics in life. It was the same cyclical system of segregating the racists so that the rich secured their superior position while keeping the poor in their perceived inferior place.  It did not matter if it were 1884 or 1984 the ideology that all men were created equal but some are more equal than others persisted. The south may have found a new way to hide their racial inequities through religion but the underlying hatred still purveyed no matter how subtle.

The south has changed. In many ways they have done so kicking and screaming like an insolent toddler but in others it will always remain the same.  Geographically they are just the South but in the hearts of many one has to wonder how different are their ideals from the rest of the nation?  Do they represent the “moral majority” and if this is true does the rest of the country share the same racial beliefs?   

Perhaps it is only with the passing of time that equality will be achieved. One can only hope that President Clinton was not wrong when during his 1993 inauguration speech he stated, “There is nothing wrong with America that cannot be cured by what is right with America.”  Equality is possible. It was envisioned in our country’s past. It is determined by our country’s present and will come to fruition by our county’s future.

Little did Mary Mallon a poor Irish immigrant know that her name would go down in history books as a woman who was responsible for hundreds of deaths in the New York.  She simply sought to feed herself by feeding others while employed as a cook. Her simple job as an unskilled worker would have been harmless enough if she had not been a carrier of the disease of Typhoid. 

Mary’s story begins in 1883 when she was working for New York banker, Charles Henry Warren. The Warrens employed her as their cook at their rental house in Oyster Bay, owned by Mr. George Thompson. Six of the eleven people staying in the house came down with typhoid. The disease is spread by water or food supplies. It was found that it was not within the water supply in Oyster Bay so such a large outbreak must have had a more localized source.

The Thompson family hired a sanitary engineer George Soper, to make sure there rental investment was not to blame. He found that the family had switched cooks around the time of the outbreak but declared her to be an Irish woman in good health but that she was a carrier of the disease. He sought her down and quite rudely informed her that she was spreading the disease through her poor bathroom hygiene prior to cooking. He demanded urine/blood samples from her which she denied on account of his cruel accusations. 

Without the samples Soper reconstructed Mary Mallon’s work history to prove her spread of the disease. It was found that seven of the eight families she worked for in the last ten years were infected to some degree or another. Twenty two people became infected and one person ultimately died. 

Ms. Mallon story would have ended if she had been able to accept the fact that unseen germs could be deadly and that her apparent good health did not mean that she was not capable of infecting others. The New York Health inspector insisted that she be tested for the illness. She was forced to submit to testing which ultimately showed she was a carrier. She was then forced into quarantine at Riverside Hospital located near Bronx and Rikers Island. 

She was later released on the condition that she not prepare food for anyone. She did abide by this decree for awhile but ultimately went back to the only livelihood she knew that would allow her to make enough money to survive. Her decision to return to the cooking jobs that paid more resulted in more typhoid outbreaks. She was quarantined again and lived out the remainder of her life isolated within the public health system.

.

Sadly, the present corporation does not belong solely to the McDonald brothers. The restaurant chain was franchised and the brothers were actually forced out of the industry by a franchise owner Ray Kroc. He deliberately opened a chain next to each of the McDonald brothers own restaurants to undercut their profits.

Regardless, McDonalds is known the world over for having rapid service and a product that is the same in Covington, KY or Paris, France. They provide food quickly and efficiently to all patrons in part because of the training of franchise owners at Hamburger University. http://www.mcdonalds.com/corp/career/hamburger_university.html

By seeking out the history that is closest to your roots you can develop a sense of your own history and the impact that the events that have shaped your development and on the world. By studying local history a person can learn how what is now a current event will one day have a historical significance to a future generation of learners.

In my hometown there is a place of historical significance that I would like to focus on, The Dins more Homestead. It is currently open to the public as a house museum.

The Dinsmore Homestead gives the visitor a look into what life was like in rural Boone County during the 18th and 19th centuries. Docents tell the tales of James Dinsmore who moved to the home close to the Ohio River in 1839. He used his land to grow grapes, raise sheep and materials for basket making. Mr. Dinsmore and his wife Martha had three daughters Isabella, Julia and Susan. Julia never married and inherited the farm in 1872. She operated it successfully for 54 years until her death at age 93.

That is the basic history of the place but when visiting and reading the journals left behind by the family is where the history comes alive. One can learn that the family did own slaves that were brought up from Louisiana. The slaves cooked for the family and tended to the crops. Mr. Dinsmore lost a great deal of money in the Civil War, in no small part because of the loss of his free labor. Also within the journals is the account of how one slave ran away from the home during the Civil War but later returned to the home after the death of James. She was cared for by the remaining family until her death.

One can also learn the untold stories that are not put before the usual visiting public, such as the time that one of Julia’s nieces while driving drunk ran over the lady in her old age leaving her bound to a wheelchair for almost a year.

Her journals entries are the simple recollections of a woman trying to run a farm.

February 24th
Found two new lambs and one old ewe down to die apparently…tried to count the lambs – made out 85 in all…
Feb. 27
Found one dead lamb in the pen and one we had in the kitchen. Charlie and Tom both worked, put rings in the hogs and pigs noses. Hauled a load of barrels to the wine house…
Mar 23
…I put fire in 2 stumps…Killed copperhead on my way home to dinner…

However, they bring her world alive for the reader. They can see that life had its trials and taken as one day they are just chores but as a collection of journal entries they give an insight into a time and place that would otherwise be forgotten.

It is those types of stories that can help a young historian to know that life is a living history. We make our history by our decisions and by our lack of them. Even when we sit thinking life is just passing by we are leaving our footprints on the community that we live in.
http://www.dinsmorefarm.org/whatis2.htm

http://www.boonecountyky.org/

The United States had long practiced in both its foreign and domestic policy that it had a “Manifest Destiny” to spread the benefits of white Anglo-Saxon Protestantism throughout  American and international borders. The country once bitterly divided by a physical war over the rights of all persons regardless of color to live a life as freemen was still firmly entrenched in a value system that said that all whites were superior to persons of color.

The supremacy of whites spilled over into many areas of government including the Department of Defense. African Americans had served in every war since the inception of The United States but they would always be thought of as inferior fighting men regardless of the heroic acts of soldiers both as individuals and as a unit.

The United States involvement in WW II would push the limits of this racial ideology for both those enlisted in the military and for the civilian population back home. Time and again the issue of integration of both colored and white troops was discussed by military leaders but was rejected both because of the belief that black soldiers were inferior and also because of the belief that the military would not be a “sociological laboratory” for effecting social change.¹

            The 1940’s were going to be a time of social change even if the country was not ready for it. The involvement in a world war involved of US citizens those in uniform and those who were back at home were all going to be witnesses to social change as the country moved into the realm of  super power.

            As evidence of this social change on July 26, 1948 President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9981 which outlawed racial discrimination for federal jobs. The military being part of the federal government was forced to recognize the fact that black and white soldiers were all necessary to fight in the global war. It was not until 1954 that the last all black unit was completely abolished but the turbulent years of World War II were the catalyst for the changes that would happen a decade later.²

                The executive branch may have declared that blacks receive equal opportunity to serve and defend their country but much like the emancipation proclamation, it did not change the hearts and minds of its citizens. African Americans answered the call to duty but were often times rejected due to how strictly segregated the armed forces were in 1940. There was simply not enough established black units for the them to enter.

            The African- Americans who were able to obtain enlistment were often bitterly disappointed in the lack of opportunity for skilled positions. They joined the military to defend their country yet found themselves in the role of ditch diggers, garbage men, latrine cleaners and cooks. All subservient service jobs that did not recognize their mental abilities were given to the blacks because they were not considered real soldiers capable of protecting their country.

            Many who found themselves in this predicament wrote to their family, newspapers, their congressmen even the president asking them to intervene on their behalf and help to gain equal footing. One such solder wrote to the Pittsburgh Courier,

                                    Dear Sir:

                                    We are members of the 78 Aviation Sqdr, and its seems we are not      

                                    being treated fair. Most of us got trades of our own to help win this   

                                    war. But instead we are servant and ditch diggers and we want

                                    better, if it ever been slavery it is now, please help us because we         

                                    better. They got us here washing dishes, working around the

officer houses and waiting on them, instead of trying to win this war.³

The men who wanted to serve their country were subject to the same war poster propaganda as the rest of the county. When they saw Uncle Sam holding out a finger asking for them to do their duty they did not imagine their duty was cleaning an officer’s toilet.

            The men found themselves able to enlist in a very limited capacity. The air corps, tank corps and signal corps were off limits to them. They were in no way able to serve in an infantry capacity at the beginning of the war. It seemed in every branch and in every capacity a black soldier was destined to face some sort of discrimination.

            No where was this more evident than in the Southern training camps. The south was always known vehement about how they felt about their citizens of color. They felt they should know their place in society and that place was at the bottom. Donning a uniform would not make a man equal and neither did coming from the North and West.  A black man in the south was inferior plain and simple and any request for equality would be flatly ignored.

            One black inductee wrote to President Roosevelt, that “ I have an unholy fear, not of the enemy but strangely enough of my own fellow Americans… I pray that I will not hear on the morrow that one of my relations or friends has been killed by a fellow citizen because his face is black.”⁴

                This fear was not unfounded because everywhere a soldier turned he faced outward hostility. On the base black soldiers were forced to eat only after the whites were finished. If they needed medical care they saw a doctor if and when one was available after seeing the white units. Their barracks were likely to be isolated and lacking in the basic  comfort  measures such as having bedding or enough beds period. One solder stationed in Alabama Howard Dickerson remembered an incident at the base PX “ About five of us wanted went up to the counter and there was this Caucasian girl behind it. She kept passing us up and serving the white soldiers. We told her, We want a coke. Her response, was You know your PX ain’t open yet. The PX for you niggers is around the corner and it don’t open until after twelve.”⁵

            The towns where the bases were located were very adamant on how they felt about first outsiders coming in and second those outsiders being black. Many soldiers told stories of being refused service at off base establishments. They were denied access to restaurants and stores alike. One of the biggest disappointments as illustrated in the film, The Tuskegee Airmen, was practice of serving and treating German POW better than the black soldier.⁶

                It was very difficult for these men of color to know that they were in the Army for Uncle Sam yet they were treated us second class citizens. All around them were war stories of heroes going over to Europe or the pacific Island to fight the tyranny of oppression yet they were losing the battle against oppression in their own “free” country. The idea started that to win the war they were winning a Double V,  they felt that by serving their country no matter how prejudged a country it happened to be they were winning a victory for themselves as well as the world. If they could prove themselves as able soldiers then maybe when the war was over they would have proved themselves as able bodied and equal citizens.

            One way that black soldiers desired to prove their ability was through military combat. Many faced discrimination and were not able to find the training necessary to serve in combat roles but their were noticeable exceptions.

            One such exception was with the landing forces on D-Day. There were black faces among the white landing on the beaches at Normandy. Hollywood director John Ford accompanied a Coast Guard camera crew and described the heroics of one black sailor who resolved to get his unit supplies,’ He dropped on the beach, unloaded, went back for more. I watched fascinated. Shells landed all around him. He avoided every obstacle and just kept going back and forth, completely calm.”

            This one soldier recognized the need for supplies in order to fight a proper battle but credit also needs to go to the mostly black supply unit formally known as The Red Ball Express. The allies had moved so quickly eastward that their supply lines were stretched too thin. The front lines were left without sufficient, food, fuel and artillery. A petroleum pipeline was needed but it was not possible to construct because of the time constraints. The only way to get fuel to the frontlines was by truck.

            A convoy was developed that military leaders instructed the black truck drivers to methodically pace their trucks sixty yards apart and to travel twenty five miles per hour.  There were over 132 companies with more than 6000 trucks with 75 percent of the drivers being African Americans.⁶

            The drivers realized pretty quickly that the idea of going twenty five miles per hour in  a war zone was ridiculous. The removed the governor’s from the trucks that controlled the speed and drove them as fast as humanly possible. Sergeant Houston explained the danger in defying military orders, ‘ We were risking court-martial because we were defying orders but I don’t think we would have been successful any other way.”⁷

            Col. John. S.D. Eisenhower son of the Allied commander recognize the importance of the efforts made by these drivers. “The spectacular nature of the advance through France was due in as great measure to the thanks to the men who drove the Red Ball trucks as to those who drove the tanks.”⁸

                The men were serving their country well in the European theatre yet life on the military installations there was very much the same as in the states. Black service men were not allowed by the United States officials to enter into any European town unaccompanied. This attitude was especially disturbing in Great Britain. Most Brits welcomed the arrival of all American troops but white and black alike.

            A corporal writing home described his disgust at the friendliness shown to the black soldiers, ‘ The English seem to prefer the Niggers to the whites. Especially the women. Maybe the South is right keep ‘em in line one way or another.” ⁹

            The commanders did try to keep the blacks down by limiting their exposure to the townspeople and attempting to stop the fraternization between colored troops and white women. They were facing an uphill battle due to the fact that the government of the occupied country would not stand behind their efforts to segregate.    

                It was not only the ground forces that faced racial discrimination.  President Roosevelt instituted what was seen as simply as an experiment the first colored air group to be trained at the Tuskegee Institute. The men who were known as the Tuskegee Airmen were all college educated officers were trained to fly combat missions. They faced obstacles that varied from being made to retake written exams out of the miscounted fear that they had cheated due to elevated scores to lack of available trainers because there were not willing officers to train the black men.

            Even after training the discrimination did not stop. The men were able to fly but were sitting around waiting for the call to serve. They finally received it and were to lend support as the 99^th Fighter squadron in North Africa and the 332^nd in the European theatre.

            This distinguished group of airmen served equally well as individual bombers and as escorts. Part of their exemplary record includes never losing a single bomber on over 200 missions^{. 10}  Their efforts were extraordinary but efforts alone did not mean they were treated with any more respect back home. The new recruits back home to the training program were still treated with the same animosity and prejudice regardless of the fact that their black comrades were risking their lives in the line of fire to protect the white crews of the long range bombers.

            When the war was over the black soldiers like all US soldiers returned changed men. They had stared into the face of death and beaten it. They had answered the call to protect and serve their country and now wanted to be appreciated for their efforts. All over the Untied States was a ferocious type of patriotism  Everywhere were visible signs that we were proud of our country and proud of our men that came home.

            However for some men to come home and be told that we are proud of our fighting soldiers but step to the back of the bus and don’t drink from the wrong fountain was not tolerable. Men who had danced with white women in England were told that they were not allowed to approach a white woman on the street because it was against the law soon realized that although they had just spent years stomping out the evils of racial superiority they were still considered the inferior race on many streets across the nation.              The sense of pride instilled in these men in the Armed Forces was not going to go away simply because America was wanting to return peaceful times. The civil rights movement was starting to form if not in action at least in the hearts and minds of those who returned as changed men to their families.

            Men in uniform hold their head just a bit higher and are proud of the fact that they served their country well. In the South, for a Negro to hold his head, whatever the reason was completely unacceptable. Many a black soldier learned through example by the number of lynching of men in uniform that the South would not tolerate pride in a Negro. A Negro may have served his country but he was back home now and had better know his role.

            The roles the returning colored troops were not always the ones they left behind. The veteran benefits awarded to all veterans regardless of color allowed black men to elevate their status through education. The GI bill allowed men to attend college in numbers unheard of before the war. They may have faced hardship gaining entrance into the college of their choice but the ability even if limited was there whereas prior to the war very few blacks could dream of a college education.

            In addition to education benefits many blacks were able to become permanent members of their communities by living the American dream of home ownership. Blacks were able to utilize the VA subsidized loans and own a piece of the country that they served.

            Black veterans were also able to seek out federal jobs with pensions that were awarded to all veterans. These civil service careers such as the Post Office afforded returning soldiers a stable job with a  steady paycheck.

            Men came home from war having learned skills that gave them an advantage over unskilled laborers. In particular, men who had served in the Navy as construction workers learned the construction skills that allowed them to bid on government contracts for construction jobs back home. They were able to operate heavy equipment and demand the compensation for a job that not many white men knew how to do.

            The civil rights movement of the sixties was still a decade away but the seeds of racial equality had been planted. The fighting men of color had served their country and served it well. They fought for freedom because they knew intimately what it was like to be denied freedom.  Lt. Roscoe C. Brown, a member of the Fighting 99^th summed it up,

                                    Yes, we were black- but that wasn’t a negative to us. That just 

Meant we had to just as good and probably better than the white guys or they would find some way to wash us out of the program-which gave us a great deal of confidence. Sure, we’re were colored, but yes we were qualified. We were Negroes and Americans too.¹⁰

The men may not have achieved their Double V victory but they did change the minds of some including their own. America, along with the world was changed after WWII, the horrors of racism at its worst were evident in the faces of countless Jews. Americans rejected this ideology even if they were not able to quite part with all versions of racism of their own kind.

            Black and white soldiers did however fight along side of one another. The social experiment that the military had feared and tried to reject did occur whether they liked it or not. Integrated troops may not have been the norm but the success of the United States in WWII was due in a great part to troops being able to form alliances with one another. It was proven that whites and blacks could live and work together for a common goal. When the battle was over the fight for freedom remained. At least now the fight was approachable because the war proved that it was possible for the races to work together to serve and protect.        

Endnotes

1.  Phillip McGuire, Taps for a Jim Crow Army: Letters from Black Soldiers in World War II (Lexington: The University Pres of Kentucky, 1983), xxi.

2.  Elissa Haney, Blacks in the Military: The fight for recognition of African-American soldiers (http://www.infoplease.com/spot/bhmmilitary1.html, 2005).

3.  McGuire, Taps for a Jim Crow Army, 63.

4.  David P. Colley, Blood for Dignity: the Story of the First Integrated Combat Unit in the U.S. Army (New York: Saint Martin’s press, 2003), 27.

5.  Robert Williams and T.S. Cook, The Tuskegee Airmen (Hollywood, Home Box Office, 1995).

            6.  Christopher Paul Moore, Fighting for America: Black Soldiers – The Unsung Heroes of World War II (New York: Balantine Books, 2005), 190.

            7.  ibid., 191.

            8.  ibid., 193.

            9.  Graham Smith, When Jim Crow Met John Bull: Black American Soldiers in World War II Britain (New York: Saint Martin’s Press, 1988), 133.

            10.  Moore, Fighting for America, 135.

Bibliography

Colley, David P.  Blood for Dignity: the Story of the First Integrated Combat Unit in the

U.S. Army. New York: Saint Martin’s press, 2003.

Haney, Elissa.  Blacks in the Military: The fight for recognition of African-American

soldiers. http://www.infoplease.com/spot/bhmmilitary1.html.

McGuire, Phillip.  Taps for a Jim Crow Army: Letters from Black Soldiers in World War

II. Lexington: The University Pres of Kentucky, 1983.

Moore, Christopher Paul.  Fighting for America: Black Soldiers – The Unsung Heroes of

World War II.  New York: Balantine Books, 2005.

Smith, Graham. When Jim Crow Met John Bull: Black American Soldiers in World War

II Britain.  New York: Saint Martin’s Press, 1988.

Williams, Robert and Cook, T.S.  The Tuskegee Airmen.  Hollywood, Home Box Office,

1995.